هناء يتم وضع الواجب الثانى

[Introduction

In recent years,the role of literature as a basic component and source of authentic texts of the language curriculum rather than an ultimate aim of English instruction has been gaining momentum.
Among language educators,there has been a hot debate as to how,when,where and why literature should be incorporated in ESL/EFL curriculum.Vigorous discussion of how literature and ESL/EFL instruction can work togather and interact for the benefit of students and teachers has led to the flourishment of interesting ideas,learning,and improved instruction for all.
Many teachers consider the use of literature in language teaching as an interesting and worthy concern.The researcher will investigate why a language teacher should use literary texts in the language classroom,what sort of literature language teacher should use with language learners,literature and the teaching of language skills,and benefits of different genres of literature to language teaching will be taken into account.
The use of literature as a technique for teaching both basic language skills(i.e. listening,speaking,reading,writing) and language area(i.e. vocabulary,grammer,and pronounciation) is very popular within the field of foreign language learning and teaching nowadays.Moreover,in translationcourses,many language teachers make their students translate literary texts into the mother tongue.
Literary texts offer a rich source of linguistic input and can help learners to develop their understanding of other cultures.Literature lessons can lead to public displays of students output through posters of students creation e.g poems,stories or thought performances of plays.
For many university teachers of English as a foreign language,the study of literature is indispensible because it exposes students to meaningful contexts that are replete with descriptive language and interesting characters.
Structuring lessons around the reading of literature introduces a profound range of vocabulary,dialogues and prose.In addition to developing students English language skills,teaching literature also appeals to their imagination,develops cultural awareness and encourage critical thinking about plots,themes and characters.
As teachers of English as a Foreign Language our main concern is to help learners acquire communicative competence. For this reason we tend to focus on teaching standard forms of linguistic expression. However, despite acquiring linguistic accuracy, it is apparent that EFL speakers still have difficulties in comprehending the nuances, creativity and versatility which characterise even standard and transactional forms of English, as these humorous public notices demonstrate:

Communicative competence is more than acquiring mastery of structure and form. It also involves acquiring the ability to interpret discourse in all its social and cultural contexts. For this reason, the use of literature in the EFL classroom can provide a powerful pedagogic tool in learners’ linguistic development.

Language, both spoken and written, comes in a variety of discourse types and, as teachers of language, we attempt to introduce our learners to as many of these as possible.The variety and types of discourse are perhaps best represented by Kinneavy’s communication triangle (1983). This classification of discourse types includes expressive, which focuses on personal expres​sion(letters, diaries, etc.); transactional, which focuses on both the reader and the message (advertising, business letters, editorials, instructions, etc.); and poetic, which focuses on form and language (drama, poetry, novels, short stories, etc.). Indeed, all these discourse types already play a significant role in teaching various aspects of language such as vocabulary and structure, or testing learners’ comprehension.
However, there is often reluctance by teachers, course designers and examiners to introduce unabridged and authentic texts to the EFL syllabus. There is a general perception that literature is particularly complex and inaccessible for the foreign language learner and can even be detrimental to the process of language learning (Or, 1995). Indeed, it is difficult to imagine teaching the stylistic features of literary discourse to learners who have a less than sophisticated grasp of the basic mechanics of English language. This perception is also borne out by research (Akyel and Yalçin, 1990) which shows that the desire to broaden learners’ horizons through exposure to classic literature usually has disappointing results. The reasons why teachers often consider literature inappropriate to the language classroom may be found in the common beliefs held about literature and literary language. Firstly, the creative use of language in poetry and prose often deviates from the conventions and rules which govern standard, non-literary discourse, as in the case of poetry where grammar and lexis may be manipulated to serve orthographic or phonological features of the language. Secondly, the reader requires greater effort to interpret literary texts since meaning is detached from the reader’s immediate social context; one example is that the “I” in literary discourse may not be the same person as the writer.
The result is that the reader’s “interpretative procedures” (Widdowson, 1975) may become confused and overloaded. What this means is that the reader has to infer, anticipate and negotiate meaning from within the text to a degree that is not required in non-literary discourse. Thus, in our efforts to teach our learners’ communicative competence there is a tendency to make use of texts which focus on the transactional and expressive forms of writing with the exclusion or restriction of poetic forms of language – i.e. literature. There is a perception that the use of literary discourse deflects from the straightforward business of language learning, i.e. knowledge of language structure, functions and general communication.
The classification of discourse types in this way would seem to suggest that there are distinct differences between literary and non-literary discourse. This reflects a historic divergence between language and literature, which Short (1996) refers to as a ‘border dispute over territory’ between linguists and literary critics. This divergence has resulted in the teaching of the two subjects as ‘disconnected pedagogic practices’ (Carter and McRae, 1996: xxiv). This is not to say there is no difference between literary and non-literary discourse; however, Carter and Nash (1990) suggest that rather than perceiving literary discourse as separate and remote from non-literary discourse, we ought to consider the variety of text types along a continuum with some being more literary than others. This view is part of the idea that the separation of literature from language is a false dualism since literature is language and language can indeed be literary. It is not difficult to find instances of standard transactional forms of discourse which make use of a whole array of literary devices. Headlines and advertisements are common examples of discourse which exploits literary language.
The boundaries which are thought to exist between literary and non-literary discourse are not so distinct. Indeed, as Widdowson (1979) suggests, the procedures which are used to interpret literary discourse are essentially the same for interpreting any type of discou

الصعوبات التى تواجة طلاب المرحلة الابتدائيه فى تعلم مهارة القراءه باللغة الانجليزية



القراءة من أهم المهارات التي تعلم في المدرسة .

وتؤدي الصعوبات في القراءة إلى فشل في كثير من المواد الأخرى في المنهاج .وحتى يستطيع الطالب تحقيق النجاح في أي مادة يجب عليه أن يكون قادراً على القراءة .وهناك عدد من المهارات المختلفة التي تعتبر ضرورية لزيادة فاعلية القراءة .

وتقسم هذه المهارات إلى قسمين :

1- تمييز الكلمات 2- مهارات الاستيعاب .

وكلا النوعين ضروريان في عملية تعلم القراءة . ومن المهم في تدريس هاتين المهارتين أن لا يتم تدريسهما عن طريق المحاضرة بل لابد من تدريب الطالب عليها من خلال نصوص مناسبة بالنسبة له ، مما يساعد الطالب على تجزئة المادة وربط أجزائها ببعضها البعض .

أنماط صعوبات القراءة ...

1- الإدراك البصري .....
الإدراك المكاني أو الفراغي : تحديد مكان جسم الإنسان في الفراغ وإدراك موقع الأشياء بالنسبة للإنسان وبالنسبة للأشياء الأخرى . وفي عملية القراءة ، يجب أن ينظر إلى الكلمات كوحدات مستقلة محاطة بفراغ .

2- التمييز البصري .....

لا يستطيع الكثيرون من الطلبة الذين يعانون من صعوبات في القراءة :
1- التمييز بين الحروف والكلمات ،
2- التمييز بين الحروف المتشابهة في الشكل ( ن ، ت ، ب ، ث ، ج ، ح .... ) .
3- التمييز بين الكلمات المتشابهة أيضاً ( عاد ، جاد ) . ولابد من تدريب بعض هؤلاء الطلبة على التمييز بين الحروف المتشابهة والكلمات المتشابهة .

ويجب أن نعلم الطلاب أن هناك بعض الأمور التي لا تؤثر في تمييز الحرف وهي :

1- الحجم ، 2_اللون ، 3_ مادة الكتابة .

ويلاحظ وجود مشكلات في التمييز البصري بين صغار الأطفال الذين يجدون صعوبة في مطابقة الأحجام والأشكال والأشياء .
وينبغي التأكيد على هذه النشاطات في دفاتر التمارين وفي اختبارات الاستعداد للقراءة لأهمية هذه المهارات .

3- الإدراك السمعي....


1- تحديد مصدر الصوت) الوعي على مركز الصوت واتجاهه).

2- التمييز السمعي .
القدرة على تمييز شدة الصوت وارتفاعه أو انخفاضه والتمييز بين الأصوات اللغوية وغيرها من الأصوات ، وتشتمل هذه القدرة أيضاً على التمييز بين الأصوات الأساسية ( الفونيمات ) وبين الكلمات المتشابهة والمختلفة .

3- الذاكرة السمعية التتابعية .

ويقصد بها التمييز أو / وإعادة إنتاج كلام ذي نغمة معينة ودرجة شدة معينة .
وتعتبر هذه المهارة ضرورية للتمييز بين الأصوات المختلفة والمتشابهة وهي تمكننا من إجراء مقارنة بين الأصوات والكلمات ، ولذلك لابد من الاحتفـاظ بهذه الأصوات في الذاكرة لفترة معينة من أجل استرجاعها لإجراء المقارنة

4- تمييز الصوت عن غيره من الأصوات الشبيهة به .

عملية اختيار المثير السمعي المناسب من المثير السمعي غير المناسب ويشار إليه أحياناً على أنه تمييز الصورة – الخلفية السمعية .

5- المزج السمعي .
القدرة على تجميع أصوات مع بعضها بعضاً لتشكيل كلمة معينة .
6- تكوين المفاهيم الصوتية .

القدرة على تمييز أنماط الأصوات المتشابهة والمختلفة وتمييز تتابع الأصوات الساكنة والتغيرات الصوتية التي تطرأ على الأنماط الصوتية .

4- التمييز السمعي ........

- عدم القدرة على التمييز بين الأصوات اللغوية الأساسية من أهم ميزات الطلبة الذين يعانون من مشكلات سمعية في القراءة.
- عدم القدرة على تمييز التشابه والاختلاف بين الكلمات . فالأطفال الذين يعانون من مشاكل سمعية قد لا يستطيعون تمييز الكلمة التي تبدأ بحرف السين مثلاً من بين مجموعة من الكلمات التي تقرأ على مسامعهم . وبالإضافة إلى ذلك فإن هؤلاء الطلبة لا يستطيعون التمييز بين الكلمات المتشابهة التي تختلف عن بعضها بعضاً في صوت واحد فقط مثل ( نام ، قام ، لام ) . لذلك فإن معظم الاختبارات السمعية تركز على قياس هذه القدرة ( Wepman , 1973 )
* ويعاني هؤلاء الطلبة ( ذوو الاضطرابات السمعية ) أيضاً من عدم القدرة على التمييز بين الكلمات ذات النغمة المتشابهة لأن ذلك يتطلب قدرة على تحديد التشابه السمعي بين هذه الكلمات .
وتعتبر هذه القدرة واحدة من عدة مهارات يمكن تقييمها في سنوات المدرسة الأولى .
إن الطفل الذي يواجه صعوبة في التمييز بين الأصوات العالية والمنخفضة أو بين أصوات الحيوانات أو أصوات السيارات سيواجه مشكلة في تمييز الأصوات اللغوية عن بعضها بعضاً مثل ( ص – ض – س – ش ) .
تختلف الاضطرابات السمعية وما تحدثه من مشكلات قرائية من طالب لآخر . فقد يواجه بعض الطلبة صعوبة في تمييز أصوات معينة ( ب ، ت ، س ) بينما يواجه طلبة آخرون مشكلة تمييز الصوت الأول أو الأخير في كل كلمة . ومن المحتمل أن يواجه الأطفال الذين يعانون من مشكلات سمعية صعوبات في القراءة .
وترى إحدى الدراسات أن مهارة التمييز السمعي كانت أفضل من غيرها من المهارات التي درست في الدلالة على نجاح تلاميذ الصف الأول في القراءة ( Spache and Spache, 1986 )
5- مزج الأصوات ....

يقصد بمزج الأصوات القدرة على تجميع الأصوات مع بعضها البعض لتكوين كلمات كاملة .
فالطفل الذي لا يستطيع ربط الأصوات معاً لتشكيل كلمات لا يستطيع جمع أصوات ( ر ، أ ، س ) لتكوين كلمة " رأس " على سبيل المثال ، إذ تبقى هذه الأصوات الثلاثة منفصلة .
ومن الواضح أن مثل هؤلاء التلاميذ سيواجهون مشكلات في تعلم القراءة . وكثيراً ما تحدث صعوبات القراءة عندما يتم التركيز في التدريس على تعليم الأصوات منفصلة عن بعضها بعضاً .
فقد يتعلم الطفل هذه الأصوات منفردة وبالتالي يصعب عليه جمعها معاً لتكوين كلمة .
ويواجه طلبة آخرون من ذوي الاضطرابات السمعية أو اضطرابات الذاكرة صعوبة في جمع أجزاء الكلمة معاً بعد بذل جهد كبير لمحاولة تذكر الأصوات المكونة لهذه الكلمة والتمييز بينها .
وبسبب الطبيعة الصوتية للغة العربية فإن هذه المشكلة تكون أكثر وضوحاً عند تعلم اللغة العربية .
تركز النشاطات التدريسية التي تهدف إلى تطوير القدرة على ربط الأصوات مع بعضها بعضاً على استخدام الكلمات في سياقات ذات معنى من أجل زيادة احتمال جعل عملية الربط بين الأصوات تلقائية .
ويعتقد بعض الباحثين بضرورة كون هذه المهارة وغيرها من المهارات الأساسية تلقائية ليتمكن الطالب من التركيز على جوانب عملية الاستيعـاب في نص معين بدلاً من التركيز على عملية القراءة ذاتها .

6- الذاكـــرة .....

تشتمل الذاكرة على القدرة على الاحتفاظ بالمعلومات لاستخدامها فيما بعد . وقد لاحظ هاريس وسايبه Harris & Sipay , 1985 أن ضعف مهارات الذاكرة من أهم ميزات الأفراد الذين يعانون من صعوبات في القراءة .
فهؤلاء الطلبة لا يستعملون استراتيجيات تلقائية للتذكر كما يكون أداؤهم في اختبارات الذاكرة قصيرة المدى في الغالب ضعيفاً .
وهناك ارتباط في كثير من الأحيان بين مشكلات الذاكرة التي يعاني منها ذوو صعوبات التعلم وبين العمليات البصرية والسمعية المختلفة .
فقد تؤثر اضطرابات الذاكرة البصرية على القدرة على تذكر بعض الحروف والكلمات بينما تؤثر قدرة الذاكرة على تسلسل الأحداث وعلى ترتيب الحروف في الكلمة وعلى ترتيب الكلمات في الجملة .
ومن ناحية أخرى فإن اضطرابات الذاكرة السمعية قد تؤثر على القدرة على تذكر أصوات الحروف وعلى القدرة على تجميع هذه الأصوات لتشكيل كلمات فيما بعد .
وقد يواجه الطلبة الذين يعانون من مشكلة في تتابع الأحداث المسموعة صعوبة في ترتيب أصوات الحروف ، فقد يقوم هؤلاء الطلبة بتغيير ترتيب مقاطع الكلمة عندما يقرءونها .
قد ينتج ضعف القدرة على استرجاع المعلومات من استراتيجيات الترميز غير الفاعلة ومن التدريب أو ترتيب المعلومات ، ومن كون المادة غير مألوفة أو من عدم الكفاءة في آلية استرجاع المعلومات المخزونة . حتى ليصح التساؤل عما إذا كان بالإمكان دراسة الذاكرة وحدها دون دراسة الوظائف المعرفية الأخرى .

7- لقراءة العكسية للكلمات والحروف .....

يعتبر الميل إلى قراءة الكلمات والحروف ( أو كتابتها ) بشكل معكوس من الميزات المعرفية التي يتصف بها الذين يعانون من صعوبات في القراءة .
يميل هؤلاء الطلبة إلى قراءة بعض الحروف بشكل معكوس أو مقلوب وبخاصة الحروف ( ب ، ن ، س ، ص ) وقد يقرأ هؤلاء الطلبة بعض الكلمات بالعكس ( سار بدلاً من راس ) وقد يستبدل بعضهم الصوت الأول في الكلمة بصوت آخر ( دار بدلاً من جار ) .
وهناك مجموعة أخرى من هؤلاء الطلبة ممن يغيرون مواقع الحروف في الكلمة أو ينقلون صوتاً من كلمة إلى كلمة مجاورة .
وكثيراً ما يتم تفسير ظاهرة القراءة المعكوسة بعدم القدرة على تمييز اليسار من اليمين .
وتعتبر هذه الظاهرة مألوفة بين الأطفال في المرحلة الابتدائية وبخاصة عند بداية تعلم القراءة .
ولكن هذه المشكلة تختلف عند ذوي صعوبات التعلم من حيث مدى حدوثها وفترة استمرارها ، وإذ يميل هؤلاء الأطفال إلى عكس عدد أكبر من الحروف والكلمات ولفترة زمنية أطول مما هي عليه الحال في الأطفال الذين لا يعانون من صعوبات في التعلم .
أن التدريس الجيد في البداية أمر ضروري لتشخيص هذه الصعوبات ومعالجتها .
ومن الممكن تدريب الأطفال على إتباع الاتجاه الصحيح في القراءة باستخدام رسومات أو أشكال هندسية مختلفة لهذا الغرض . ولكي يتغلب الأطفال على مشاكل عدم تمييز الشكل والاتجاه لا بد من إدراك تفاصيل أشكال الحروف وأنماط تجميعها مع بعضها بعضاً لتكوين كلمات .


8- مهارات تحليل الكلمات

إن القدرة على تحليل الكلمات بفاعلية من أهم المهارات لتعلم القراءة الجيدة .
وتحدد مهارات تحليل الكلمات عادة بمدى تنوع الأساليب التي يتبعها القارئ .

وتعتبر القراءة الصوتية من أكثر الأساليب شيوعاً .

ويستخدم القارئ الجيد عدداً آخر من الأساليب منها :

1- التحليل البنيوي .
2- التعرف على شكل الكلمة .
3- استخدام الصور والإفادة من الكلمات المألوفة وتحليل السياق .

ونعني بالتحليل البنيوي تمييز الكلمات والتعرف عليها بتحليلها إلى الأجزاء المكونة من طولها وشكلها في عملية قراءتها .
ويمكن الإفادة أيضاً من السياق الذي تستخدم فيه الكلمة في تحليل معاني الكلمات غير المألوفة .
تختلف هذه العوامل في تحليل الكلمات في قيمتها من عامل لآخر ، فمثلاً يعتبر أسلوب الإفادة من طول الكلمة وشكلها محدود الفائدة ، بينما يمكن الإفادة من الطريقة الصوتية لمدة أطول .
إن الكثير من الطلبة الذين يعانون من صعوبات في القراءة لا يستخدمون كثيراً من هذه الأساليب استخداماً سليماً ، فبعض هؤلاء الطلبة لا يحسن اختيار أسلوب التعامل مع الكلمات الجديدة التي يواجهها ، ويعتمد بعضهم على أسلوب واحد فقط . ثم أنه لابد للطالب الذي اعتاد على قراءة الكلمة جهرياً أن يتدرب على استعمال أساليب أخرى للتعامل مع الكلمات الجديدة .
وينبغي أن يهدف برنامج تدريب هؤلاء الطلبة على القراءة إلى تدريبهم على استخدام عدة أساليب في آن واحد .

9- الكلمات المألوفة

هي الكلمات التي يستطيع القارئ تمييزها بسرعة عندما يلحظها وهي المفردات التي يتكرر استخدامها في نصوص القراءة ( أنت ، قال ، هو ) .
هناك كلمات يصعب قراءتها جهرياً لأن كتابتها تختلف عن طريقة قراءتها ، مما يصعب من تحليلها ، ولذلك فإن الطلاب يتعلمون هذه الكلمات كوحدة واحدة . أن القدرة على تمييز مثل هذه الكلمات تسهل عملية تعلم القراءة في البداية .
وقد قام الباحث دولتش ( Dolch , 1971 ) بإعداد قائمة بهذه الكلمات المألوفة . تشتمل القائمة على خمس مجموعات موزعة بما يتناسب ومستوى الصفوف الخمسة الأولى .
تعتبر الذاكرة البصرية مهمة لتعلم الكلمات المألوفة لأنها تشتمل على عملية استذكار للملامح البارزة للمثير البصري ، فلا يستطيع الطلاب الذين يعانون من ضعف في الذاكرة البصرية تمييز بعض الكلمات المألوفة لدى مشاهدتها . وهذه الصعوبة تضعف بشدة قدرة هؤلاء الطلبة على القراءة .
وكثيراً ما يقوم مثل هؤلاء الطلبة بتخمين الكلمة أو بقراءتها ببطء أو استبدالها بكلمة أخرى ، وقد يفقدون المكان الذي كانوا يقرءون فيه ، يضاف إلى ذلك بأن الطلبة الذين لا يعرفون الكلمات المألوفة معرفة جيدة سيعمدون على الطريقة الصوتية في تحليل الكلمات التي لا تستخدم فيها هذه الطريقة لاختلاف كتابتها عن طريقة لفظها .
ومما يزيد الأمر صعوبة أن اللغة الإنجليزية تحتوي على عدد كبير من هذه الكلمات .ولابد من تعليم هذه الكلمات للطلبة تدريجياً وبخاصة الذين يعانون من صعوبات في القراءة وذلك لأن تعليمهم عدداً كبيراً من هذه المفردات في آن واحد يربكهم .

10- الاستيعاب

مهارات الاستيعاب الحرفي .
يمكن اعتبار الصعوبات في مهارة الاستيعاب لدى الطلبة الذين يعانون من مشاكل في القراءة صعوبات في استيعاب النص بحرفيته ،
أي أنها صعوبات في استذكار الحقائق والمعلومات الموجودة في النص بشكل صريح .
وتتضمن القراءة الحرفية للنص مهارات كثيرة :
1- ملاحظة الحقائق والتفاصيل الدقيقة.
2- فهم الكلمات والفقرات .
3- تذكر تسلسل الأحداث .
4- اتباع التعليمات والقراءة السريعة لتحديد معلومات محددة .
5- استخلاص الفكرة العامة من النص .

أما الطلبة الذين يعانون من صعوبات في مهارات الاستيعاب الحرفية فلا يستطيعون استذكار أو تحديد الفقرات التي تصف شخصاً أو مكاناً أو شيئاً ما . وقد يشعر هؤلاء الطلبة بالإحباط أيضاً عندما يحاولون البحث عن حقائق وتفاصيل دقيقة للإجابة عن أسئلة معينة .

** أسباب صعوبات الاستيعاب الحرفي :
عدم القدرة على فهم معاني كلمات كثيرة . يقول كارلين ( Karlin , 1980 ) أن معاني المفردات من أهم العوامل في الاستيعاب القرائي ، فلا يستطع بعض الطلبة أحياناً التمييز بين المعاني المختلفة للكلمة الواحدة ،
الخلفية المحدودة الخبرات تؤثر على عدد المفردات ومعانيها ، فبعض الطلبة لا يعرفون معاني كلمات معينة لأنهم لم يتعرضوا لمثل هذه المفردات في خبراتهم الحياتية . ولابد أن يكون لهؤلاء الطلبة خبرة في مفاهيم تلك المفردات قبل معرفة المفردات نفسها .
صعوبة التمييز بين التفاصيل المختلفة والفكرة العامة في النص . وقد يؤدي التركيز على التفاصيل والحقائق الدقيقة إلى حدوث مثل هذه الصعوبة في الاستيعاب ،
كما أن فهم الطلبة للفكرة العامة في النص قد يتأثر بطول ذلك النص . ولاشك بأن وجود أي من هذه الصعوبات يستدعي إجراء إجراءات علاجية لتجنب التأثير السيئ لتلك الصعوبات على مهارات الاستيعاب الأعلى .

** مهارات الاستيعاب التفسيري
تشتمل هذه المهارات على مهارات تتطلب :
1- القدرة على الاستنتاج والتنبؤ وتكوين الآراء .
إن الصعوبات التي يواجهها ذوو صعوبات التعلم في الجوانب الميكانيكية للقراءة تحد من قدراتهم على الفهم الحرفي للنصوص ،
ناهيك عن الصعوبات التي تواجههم في مهارات الاستيعاب التفسيرية . فقد يواجه بعضهم صعوبة بالغة في قراءة نص قصير ، حتى إن الأسئلة الاستنتاجية تبدو بمثابة عقوبة لهؤلاء الطلبة ( Jordan , 1977 ) ذلك أن قراءة هؤلاء الطلبة البطيئة تركز اهتمامهم على تمييز الكلمات وعلى بعض الجوانب الميكانيكية الأخرى مما يؤدي إلى :
2- عدم القدرة على الاحتفاظ بالأفكار التي يتضمنها النص .
3- عدم فهم تلك الأفكار بسبب الانصراف إلى التعرف إلى الكلمة نفسها .
سيواجه الطلبة الذين يعانون من صعوبات في التعلم مشكلة في الاستيعاب الذي يتعلق بالمهارات التفسيرية وذلك لأنها عمليات معرفية عالية من جهة ، ولأن هؤلاء الطلبة يعانون من عجز معرفي من جهة أخرى . ويترتب على هذه النتيجة منطقياً ، أن يواجه هؤلاء الطلبة صعوبة في الاستنتاج ومقارنة الأفكار واستخلاص المعاني وتقييم نصوص القراءة وربط الأفكار الجديدة بالخبرات السابقة . ومن المعروف أن التغلب على صعوبات الاستيعاب التفسيرية يتطلب إدخال استراتيجيات مهارات التفكير في البرنامج التعليمي للطلبة الذين يعانون من مثل هذه المشاكل .
** مهارات الاستيعاب النقدي
تشتمل هذه المهارات على إصدار القارئ أحكاماً قيمة مرتكزة على اتجاهاته وخبراته . ولا شك بأن قدرة القارئ على تحليل نصوص القراءة وتقييمها هي أعلى مستويات الاستيعاب . وتشتمل مهارات الاستيعاب النقدي على عدة مهارات أخرى مثل :

الحكم على دقة المعلومات .
1- واستخلاص النتائج .
2- التمييز بين الرأي والحقيقة .
3- تقييم آراء الكاتب ومعتقداته .
ومن أفضل الأساليب في تكوين الاستيعاب النقدي أن يقوم القارئ بمحاورة النص ومقارنته بنصوص أخرى أو تقييمه في ضوء خبراته السابقة .
إن القراءة النقدية عملية ضرورية ، إلا أن كثيراً من معلمي الطلبة الذين يعانون من صعوبات في القراءة يغفلون هذه المهارة .
ولنذكر في هذا المجال أن كثيراً من هؤلاء الطلبة يواجهون يومياً مواقف تتطلب التفكير الناقد ومهارات القراءة المختلفة ، ومن هذه المواقف :
تقدير قيمة سلعة ما بدراسة ميزاتها دون الاعتماد على ما يقال في الدعاية عنها .
تقييم مصادر المعلومات والتمييز بين الحقائق والآراء وجميع هذه المهارات الفكرية تساعدنا في حياتنا الاجتماعية .
يعتمد تطوير مهارات القراءة الناقدة على الاستيعاب الحرفي والاستيعاب التفسيري للنص ، وأي صعوبة في أي من هذين الجانبين ستؤثر على نمو مهارة القراءة النقدية .

** كيف يمكن تطوير هذه المهارة لدى الطلبة ؟
ومن الممكن تطوير هذه المهارة تدريجياً عن طريق :

1- تشجيع الطلبة على ربط نصوص القراءة بخبراتهم السابقة .
2- تدريبهم على تقييم النصوص المختلفة التي يقرأونها .
3- نوعية النقاش الذي يثيره المعلم في الدروس .

Reading of the most important skills you learn in school

And lead to difficulties in reading failure in many other materials in the curriculum. And so the student can achieve success in any material must be able to read. There are
A number of different skills that is necessary to increase the effectiveness of reading

These skills are divided into two parts

1-Highlight words 2 - comprehension skills
Both types are essential in the process of learning to read. It is important to teach those skills that are not through the teaching of the lecture, but to be trained by the student through the texts appropriate for him, which helps the student to link the fragmented material and parts to each other

Patterns of reading difficulties
Visual perception 1-
Spatial or spatial cognition: the location of the human body in space and to recognize the location of items for humans and for other things. In the process of reading, we must look to the words as separate units surrounded by a space

Visual discrimination 2-

Many can not students who have difficulties in reading
to distinguish between letters and words,
to distinguish between similar letters in the figure (n, v, b, w, c, h ....)
to distinguish between similar words as well (back, seriously). We must train some of these students to distinguish between similar letters and words similar

We must teach students that there are some things that do not affect discrimination in the letter are

size, color, 2_, 3_ article writing

He notes the existence of problems in visual discrimination in young children who have difficulty in matching sizes and shapes and things.
It should be emphasized that the activities in the exercise books and tests to prepare for a reading of the importance of these skills

listening comprehension

identify the source of sound) awareness of the status and direction of the sound)

auditory discrimination
The ability to distinguish sound intensity and high or low and the distinction between language and other sounds of the vote, and also includes the ability to distinguish between the basic sounds (phonemes) and words similar and different

auditory sequential memory

It is intended to discrimination and / or reproduce the words of a certain tone and the degree of severity of certain
This is the skill necessary to distinguish between different sounds and similar which enables us to make a comparison between the sounds and words, and therefore must keep these sounds in memory for a certain period in order to restore it to the comparison

The voice recognition from other sounds like it

The process of selecting the appropriate audio interesting interesting audio is not appropriate and is sometimes referred to as the discrimination image - the background audio

mixing audio
Ability to synthesize sounds with each other to form a specific word
Configure sound concepts

The ability to discern patterns of common sounds and different sounds and discrimination following the sound of static and changes that occur on the patterns of sound

Auditory discrimination

The inability to distinguish between the sounds of the most basic linguistic features of students who suffer from hearing problems in reading
Inability to distinguish similarities and differences between words. Children who suffer from hearing problems may not be able to distinguish the word that begins with the Seine, for example, between groups of words that you read on the ears. In addition, these students can not distinguish between similar words that differ from each other in only one vote (such as Nam, a, L). Therefore, most of the audio tests focus on measuring this ability (Wepman, 1973)
The suffering of these students (those with hearing disorders) also from the inability to distinguish between words with a similar tone, since it requires the ability to determine the acoustic similarity between these words
This ability is one of several skills can be assessed in the first years of school
A child who has difficulty in distinguishing between high and low voices or the voices of animals, sounds, vehicles will face a problem in distinguishing voices from one another language such as (y - z - o - u)
Different auditory disorders and the consequent problems of literacy of the student to another. Some students may face difficulty in distinguishing certain sounds (B, C, Q), while other students face the problem of discrimination first or last sound in each word. It is likely to face the children who suffer from hearing problems, difficulties in reading
One study claims that the skill of auditory discrimination was better than other skills taught in the significance of the success of first-grade students in reading (Spache and Spache, 1986)
Blending sounds

Blending sounds meant the ability to collect votes with each other to form complete words
A child who can not link the sounds together to form words can not collect votes (t, a, o) to form the word "capital" for example, as they remain the three separate votes
It is clear that such students will have trouble learning to read. And often occur when reading difficulties are the focus in teaching on the education of a separate vote for each other
The child learns these voices individually and therefore difficult for him to collect together to form words
Faces of other students with hearing disorders or disorders of memory difficulty in collecting parts of the floor together after a major effort to try to remember sounds, consisting of the word and to distinguish them
Because of the nature of sound for the Arabic language, this problem is more pronounced when learning the Arabic language
Focused teaching activities aimed at developing the ability to connect sounds with each other on the use of the words in meaningful contexts in order to increase the likelihood of making the connection between sounds automatically
Some researchers believe that the need for this skill, and other basic skills to be able to automate the student to focus on aspects of the process of absorption in the specific text rather than focusing on the process of reading itself

Memory

Memory includes the ability to retain information for later use. It has been noted Saybh Harris and Harris & Sipay, 1985 that the weakness of memory skills of the most important features of individuals who suffer from difficulties in reading
These students do not use automatic strategies to remember also be performed in tests of short-term memory is often weak
There is a link in many cases, the memory problems experienced by people with learning difficulties and the operations of various visual and audio
The visual memory disorders affect the ability to remember some letters and words, while affecting the ability of memory on the sequence of events and the order of the letters in the word and the order of words in the sentence
On the other hand, the auditory memory disorders may affect your ability to remember the letter sounds and the ability to collect these sounds to form words later
The faces of students who suffer from a problem in the sequence of events broadcast in the order of difficulty of letter sounds, it is these students change the order of clips when he read them the word
May result in impaired ability to retrieve information from non-coding strategies and training actors or order information, and the fact that the article is not familiar or of incompetence in the mechanism of retrieval of stored information. This is true even for the question whether the study of memory and can be alone without examining other cognitive functions

To read the reverse of the words and letters

The tendency to read words and letters (or written) is the inverse of the cognitive features that characterize those who suffer from difficulties in reading
They tend students to read some of the letters in reverse or inverted, and especially the letters (B, n, x, y) has read these students some of the words versa (Sar instead of the head) has replaced some of the first sound in the word voice of another (house instead of a neighbor)
There is another group of those students who are changing positions of letters in the word or pass word to the votes of the word neighbor
And often the interpretation of the phenomenon of reading is not to reverse the ability to distinguish left from right
This is a common phenomenon among children in primary school, especially at the beginning of learning to read
But this problem is different when people with learning difficulties in terms of how they occur and their duration, and these children tend to reflect a greater number of letters and words and for a period of time longer than is the case in children who do not suffer from learning difficulties
The teaching is good in the beginning is essential for the diagnosis and treatment of these difficulties
It is possible to train the children to follow the right direction in reading by using graphics or different geometric forms for this purpose. In order to overcome the problems of children do not distinguish the shape and direction is essential to understand details of the letters and patterns assembled with each other to form words


Word analysis skills

The ability to effectively analyze the words of the most important skills to learn to read well
Analysis skills and determine how words are usually followed by a diversity of ways in which the reader

The audio reading of the most common methods

The reader uses a good number of other methods, including

Structural analysis
Identifying the form of the word
Use pictures and make use of familiar words and context analysis

We mean the analysis of structural discrimination of words and identify them to analyze the component parts of a length and shape in the process of reading them
It can also take advantage of the context in which the word is used in the analysis of the meanings of unfamiliar words
These factors vary in the analysis of words in the value of the worker to another, for example, is a way to benefit from word length and format of limited interest, while can benefit from phonics longer
Many of the students who suffer from difficulties in reading do not use many of these methods are utilized properly, some of these students does not improve the choice of method of dealing with new words, which it faces, and some of them rely on one method only. Then it must be for the student who used to read the word Jhraa is trained to use other methods to deal with new words
The program should be aimed at training those students to read to their training on the use of several methods at once



Familiar words

Are the words that the reader can distinguish them quickly when the notice is frequently used vocabulary in reading texts (you, he said, is)
There are words Jhraa difficult to read because the writing is different for a way to read, making it difficult to analyze, so the students learn these words as a single unit. The ability to distinguish such words facilitate the process of learning to read in the beginning
The researcher Dulc (Dolch, 1971) prepared a list of these familiar words. The list includes five groups are distributed in proportion to the level of the first five rows
The visual memory task of familiar words to learn because it involves the process of recalling the highlights of the exciting optical, can not the students who suffer from weakness in visual memory distinguish some words familiar to watch. This difficulty severely weaken the ability of these students to read
And often does, such as those students guess the word or read slowly or replace it with another, may lose the place where they read it, add to that that the students who do not know the words familiar knowledge of good will choose the method of acoustic analysis of the words that do not use this method to the difference written for a way to pronounce
It makes it more difficult the English language contain a large number of these words. We must teach these words to the students gradually and especially those who suffer from difficulties in reading and education, because a large number of these items at the same Arbakhm

Absorption

Literal comprehension skills
Can be considered the difficulties in the skill of comprehension of students, who have problems with reading difficulties in absorbing the text literally,
Any difficulties they recall facts and information in the text explicitly
Include a literal reading of the text of many skills
Note the facts and minute details-
-understand the words and paragraphs
-to remember a sequence of events
Follow instructions and quick reading to determine the specific information-
To draw the general idea of the text-

Students who suffer from difficulties in comprehension skills of craft they can not recall or identify paragraphs that describe a person or a place or something. These students may feel frustrated too when trying to look for facts and details to answer specific questions

Literal comprehension difficulties reasons
Inability to understand the meanings of many words. Says Carlin (Karlin, 1980) that the meanings of the vocabulary of the most important factors in reading comprehension, some students could not sometimes distinguish between the different meanings of the word one,
Limited background experiences affect the number of words and their meanings; some students do not know the meanings of certain words because they were not exposed to such items in life experiences. It should be for these students experience in the concepts of the vocabulary before vocabulary knowledge itself
Difficult to distinguish between the various details and the general idea in the text. May lead to focus on details and accurate facts to the occurrence of such difficulty in comprehension,
The students' understanding of the general idea in the text may be affected by the length of the text. There is no doubt that the existence of any of these difficulties requires a remedial action to avoid the bad influence of these difficulties on the comprehension skills of the top

Interpretive comprehension skills
These skills include the skills required
-the ability to predict the conclusion and the formation of consensus
The difficulties faced by people with learning difficulties in the mechanical aspects of the reading limit their abilities to the literal understanding of texts,
Not to mention the difficulties they face in the interpretive skills of comprehension. Could face some very difficult to read a short text, so that the questions seem a deductive punishment for these students (Jordan, 1977) that these students read the slow focus their attention on the discrimination of words and some of the other mechanical aspects leading to
-the inability to retain the ideas contained in the text
-lack of understanding of those ideas to identify due to leave to the word itself
Face students with learning difficulties in the absorption problem which concerns the explanatory skills for it high cognitive processes on the one hand, and because these students suffer from a deficit of knowledge on the other. It follows logically on this result, these students face difficulty in finding and comparing ideas and draw meanings and texts to read and evaluate new ideas linking previous experiences. It is known that to overcome the difficulties of assimilation requires the introduction of interpretive thinking skills strategies in the educational program for students who suffer from such problems
Comprehension skills critical
These skills include the issuance of the reader the value of provisions based on the trends and experiences. There is no doubt that the ability of the reader to analyze reading texts and assessment are the highest levels of absorption. And comprehension skills include cash on a number of other skills such as

To judge the accuracy of the information
And draw conclusions
To distinguish between opinion and fact
Assess the views of the author and his beliefs
One of the best methods in the formation of absorption cash to the reader to debate with the text and compared to other texts, or evaluated in the light of past experience
The critical reading process is necessary, however, that many of the teachers of students with difficulties in reading overlook this skill
Let us recall in this area that many of these students face daily situations requiring critical thinking and reading skills different, and these attitudes
Estimate the value of a commodity study features without relying on what is being said about the publicity
Evaluation of sources of information and distinguish between facts and opinions, all of these intellectual skills help us in our social life
Supports the development of skills of critical reading comprehension literal and interpretive comprehension of the text, and any trouble with any of these two aspects will affect the growth of critical reading skills

How can the development of this skill among students?

It is possible to develop this skill gradually by

Encourage students to link the texts of the previous reading experiences
Trained to evaluate the various texts that read it
The quality of the debate raised by the teacher in lessons

فاعلية استخدام نموذج تصميم التعلم البنائي لجاجنون وكولاي علي تنمية مهارات السكرتارية التنفيذية والتفكيرالابداعي لدي طلاب المدارس الثانوية التجارية

Effective use of learning design model for the structural Gagnon and E. coli on the development of executive secretarial skills and creative thinking among students in secondary schools business

بالمقدمه

اولا المتغيرات التى يتضمنها عنوان البحث

اولا المتغير المستقل : learning a foreign language
ثانيا: المتغير التابع :cognitive development


ثانيا المقدمه:

The importance of English as a second language .
The term English as a second language is employed to describe English taught or learnt for practical and necessary uses of communication to serve as the language of instruction .

It is also a means for adaptation and a criterion of excellence in a modern world languages . The rapidly growing interests of english cuts across political and ideological lines because of the convenience of this second language which is used in important areas of the world .

It is clear thet many people are involved in the use of English . Millions ofpeople in different continents have it as their native language and furthur millions in every part of the world use it as a second language.
An increase in the knowledge of English can contribute directly to better understanding amonge nations . It is generally realized that there are attractive careers opened to people who have an interest in English as a foreign language and in the cultural needs of people abroad .

This must in evitably give us a sense of the importance of English language .
The educational use of English as a foreign language varies from the level of the university to that of the preparatory stage . It is customary to speak of teaching English as a foreign ,often merely to emphasise that the process is by no means the same as teaching it to these who already have it as their mother tongue . Demands for help in learning English as a foreign langyage are, therefore widespread .

This work responds to some of these demands . It may be profitable to take the discussion for a time a way from the English language as such , and to consider the uses of any living language .
It is well known that thought is behind all language is primarily used to "dress up" and send thoughts in their way.
Language exists as amedium for the expression of thoughts and ideas , of experience and culture . when language is used for the the exprassion of thought and ideas it is said it is the dress of thought.

One cannot deal with language without considering the communicative process and the rules that liguistic systems play in communication it is important to notice that language is our faculty to communicate .
Therefore , the researcher believes that foreign language learners have to learn about the cultural contexts of that foreign language ."World associates can help the foreign language teacher in this respect through introducing , to the learners, these sociolinguistic patterns ofthe foreign language culture".


Problem:


Teaching English in Egyptian schools sometimes completely ignores the functionalor communicative needs of the learners . The series taught in Egyptian preparatory schools is called "living English". The cultural and situational context in this theries are delibrately local . The characters , the vocabulary, the situations and activities createdare all drawn from the learners own local environment.
These lessons which represent the local culture cannot help the learner acquire the communicative function of the foreign language. [/justify]

Introduction

The concept of listening
Processing languge in real time brings special demands for language learners . Unable to look at the language again ,or to use aids such as dictionaries, they can become completely lost in a text that they would probably follow if it was presented in written form .Listening work in classroom is intended to give learners practice at understanding spoken language ,and also to help to develop strategies to make up for what they do not manage to understand .
Moving language at the present time to give the learnerès skills listening , speaking, reading, writing in various stages of study . It is intended to listen positive purposeful being done by the learner to achieve the objectives desired as understand the audio and to distinguish between sounds, or answer some questions .The kowledge of the role played by listening to the growth of human life and the transfer of culture before the show to write to confirm what his significant social and historical . It demonstrates the importance of listening to the child learn to speak fluently the language in which he hears ,regardless of sex or nationality, and the school curriculm needs to include listening skills. The neglect of listening in the school curriculum leads to serious damage .
Education goals to listen
Development of the ability of students to speak up and to distinguish between main and secondary ideas
Development trends of respect for others and take their conversations as severe.
Development of the ability of pupils to understand instructions .
Encourage students to capture the similarities and differences between the views .
Training students to analyze what they hear and evaluated in the light of specific criteria
Development of the ability of students to draw conclusions of what they hear .
Obstacles to listen
Cnstraints for students : including symptoms, and physical and physiological symptoms such as poor hearing or sychological, mental or inclinations to study failure or weakness of the intelligence and others
Subject-specific constraints :that this article is consistent with the capabilities of students
Obstacles to private teacher : the teacher is to be aware of the differences between the students
Development of listening
The teacher should be himself a role model for students in good listen , do not interrupt the students talk in and making fun of his way
Should be the teacher to prepare students to listen well to clarify the nature of the material that will be series of events
Should be chosen teacher of texts and language attitudes is what makes listening experience for students seeking fun recurrence
put students in the appropriate places and control the system and reduce the noise
can also be for the teacher to discuss with the students listened to the radio school and development of material or moral incentives to do so
Use audio and video recordings

Introduction

Writing is an important skillin all languages:it is a medium of thinking,reasoning,discovering,creating and sharing of ideas.Writing entails iteraction between the writer,the text and the reader.students can write collaboratively and in solitary.The should be encouraged to write and express themselves on subjects of interest to them.They should be helped to develop their ability to evaluate their own writing and to correct their errors.
Creating a written composition is difficult.EFL/ESL Students struggle with many issues including selecting proper words,using correct grammar,generating ideas,and developing ideas about specific topics .
More importantly,they have trouble developing functional language skills such as proper natural language used in different social contexts and using language in creative ways.Moreover,writing teachers tend to focus largely on teaching students grammar and proper language structure,and typicallysee students as passive writers.These factors hamper students from improving their classroom interaction and keep them from developing more active learning in writing(Yanghee,K.&Jiyoung,K.2005).
Reports in writing research(2007)identified 11 elements of current writing instruction found to be effective for overcoming writing problems and helping EFL Students learn to write well and to use writing as a tool for learning:
1- Writing Strategies,which involve teaching students strategies for planning,revising and editing their compositions.
2- Summarization,which involves explicitly and systematically teaching students how to summarize texts.
3- collaborative writing,which uses instructional arrangements in which students work togather to plan,draft,revise and edit their compositions.
4-Specific product goals,which assign students specific,reachable goals for the writing they are to complete.
5-Word Processing,which uses computers and word processors as instructional support for writing assignments.
6- Sentence Combining,which involves teaching students to construct more complex sentences.
7-Pre-writing,which engages students in activities designed to help them generate and organize ideas for their compositions.
8-Inquiry Activities,which engages students in analyzing immediate ,concrete data to help them develop ideas and content for a particular content task.
9-Process Writing Approach,which interweaves a number of writing instructional activities in a workshop environment that stresses extended writing opportunities ,writing for authentic audiences,personalized instruction,and cycles of writing.
10-Study of Models,which provides students with opportunities to read,analyze and emulate models of good writing.
11-Writing for Content Learning,which uses writing as a tool for learning content material.

One of the strategies that combines the advantages of the above techniques is"scaffolding".The term Scaffolding comes from the works of Wood,Bruner and Ross (1976).Scaffolding means providing support(models,cues,prompts,hints,partial solutions)to students to bridge the gap between what student can do on their own and what students can do with guidance from others.Scaffolding is actually a bridge used to build upon what students already know to arrive at something they do not know.If Scaffolding is properly administered,it will act as an enabler (Benson,1997).When the student takes responsibility for or masters the task,the teacher begins the process of "fading" ,or the gradual removal of the scaffolding,which allows the student to work independently.The goal of scaffolding is for students to become independent,self-regulating problem solvers who are more self-sufficient and less teacher dependent.
The scaffolding strategy consists of teaching new skills by engaging students collaboratively in tasks that would be too difficult for them to complete on their own.The instructor initially provides extensive instructional support ,or scaffolding to continually assist the students in building their understanding of new content and process.Communication between the teacher and the learner leads into the student internalizing what is learnt.Once the student internalize the process,the temporary scaffolding provided by the instructor is removed to reveal the impressive permanent structure of student understanding (Herber and Herber,1993).

Many research findings indicate that scaffolding facilitates learning in the following ways(McKenzie,1999.,Paulsen,1995):
*Scaffolding helps learners make connections between what they already know and the new information,which is being presented.
* It helps in developing mental schema into which new informationis transformed,as it becomes personal knowledge.That is,it helps in the organization of new information in ways that are meaningful to the learner.This assists in the development of evolving knowledge bases containing restructured information.
*It reduces learning ambiguity,confusion,uncertainty,surprise and disappointment.This facilitates the development of personal knowledge which is meaningful and which can be used by the learner.
*It provides clear direction to educators to anticipate problems that students might encounter and then develop step by step instructions which explain what a student must do to meet expectations.
*It clarifies purpose and expectations and incorporates assessment and feedback.Scaffolding helps students understand why they are doing the work and why it is important.
*It involves making decisions by instructors about the context of teaching,the content to be taught,planning of the learning experience,modeling the use of strategies,guided and then independent practice by the learner.

The scaffolding provided by the teacher in the learning process encompasses all kinds of support to facilitate and enhance learning(Scarcella&Oxford,1992).Language learning strategies LLSs are precisely a kind of scaffolding that teachers can provide.In other words,teachers can teach students new strategies and can help them sharpen their existing ones.Equipped with (LLSs) learners will employ them on their own to continue their learning process even with the absence of the teacher s support(Rae L. Lan,2005).After all,teachers will not be there for learners after they leave the learning environment;however,with the gain of "self-control and autonomy through strategy use"(Oxford&Nyikos 1989),learners will be able to continue their journey in the learning of either a second ora foreign language.

There are four phases of the instructional scaffolding model as identified by Vygotsky (Byrnes,2001),Beed,Hawkins and Roller (1991),and Hogan and Pressley (1997):
-Modeling of desired behaviors:Moeling is defined as a teaching behavior that shows how one should feel,think or act within a given situation (Duffy,Roehler &Hermanne,1988).It includes think-aloud modeling where the learners are shown an illustration of how to feel or think as they progress through a task.Modeling also includes talk-aloud where the learners are shown how to act by the designated teacher talking about the task as it is completed.
-Inviting student participation:After the teacher provides illustrations of some of the thinking,feelings or doing that are needed to complete the task,the learners have opportunities to fill in the pieces they knew and understood.Learners are given opportunities to join in the process that is occurring.
-Verifying and clarifying student understandings:Teacher offers less assistance and feedback to assist students performance as they begin to master the new process or content.If the emerging understandings are reasonable,the responses are verified.If the emerging understandings are not reasonable,the teacher offers clarifications e.g.asking guiding questions,simplifying the language,asking for completion rather than generating answers,and offering clues and body language.
-Inviting students to contribute clues:I n this form of scaffolding,students have achieved an expert level of mastery and are encouraged to offer clues about how to complete the task.Togather,the teacher and students verbalized the process.

EFL learners in Yemeni public schools begin to practice writing for the second year of the preparatory stage.Therefore,the researcher conducted a pilot study on the second year preparatory school students to detect the problems and difficulties of writing composition at the early stage.The pilot study included 60 male students in two classes who were asked to write a paragraph on an assigned topic.

The analysis of the students writings revealed that theywrote from five to six sentences with errors in spelling,punctuation,grammar,use of vocabulary.In addition,an interview with teachers in this stage revealed that they do not teach students writing strategies that are necessary for producing written texts.
Scaffolding the learning of a writing strategy means helping students to try the strategy with the teacher assistance.Peer scaffolding is useful because it allows all learners to obtain first the prerequisites and then the learning and practice necessary so that all can successfully learn.Each learner has access to a number of possible scaffolders with different knowledge,skill,and teaching styles.This diversity improves the probability of learning.
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